| Part of Speech | Function | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| Noun | Names person, place, thing, idea Types: Common, Proper, Collective, Abstract, Concrete, Countable, Uncountable | Common: book, city Proper: London, Shakespeare Collective: team, jury Abstract: love, justice |
| Pronoun | Replaces noun Types: Personal, Possessive, Reflexive, Demonstrative, Interrogative, Relative, Indefinite | Personal: I, you, he, she Possessive: mine, yours Reflexive: myself, yourself Relative: who, which, that |
| Verb | Shows action or state Types: Main, Auxiliary, Modal, Transitive, Intransitive, Linking | Main: write, run, think Auxiliary: be, have, do Modal: can, should, must Linking: seem, appear, become |
| Adjective | Modifies noun/pronoun Types: Descriptive, Quantitative, Demonstrative, Possessive, Interrogative | Descriptive: beautiful, tall Quantitative: many, few, some Possessive: my, your, his |
| Adverb | Modifies verb, adjective, or another adverb Types: Manner, Time, Place, Frequency, Degree | Manner: quickly, carefully Time: now, yesterday, soon Place: here, there, everywhere Frequency: always, never, often |
| Preposition | Shows relationship between noun/pronoun and other words | in, on, at, by, with, from, to, of, for, about, under, over, between, among |
| Conjunction | Connects words, phrases, clauses Types: Coordinating, Subordinating, Correlative | Coordinating: and, but, or, nor, for, yet, so (FANBOYS) Subordinating: because, although, when, if, unless, lest Correlative: either...or, neither...nor, both...and |
| Interjection | Expresses emotion | Oh! Alas! Wow! Hurray! Ouch! |
| Article | Use | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| A | Indefinite, before consonant sound, singular countable | a book, a university (u = /juː/ sound), a European |
| An | Indefinite, before vowel sound, singular countable | an apple, an hour (h silent), an MBA, an honest man |
| The | Definite, specific noun known to speaker/listener Unique things, superlatives, ordinals, musical instruments, geographical names (specific) | the book (specific), the sun, the best, the first, play the piano, the Himalayas, the USA |
| Zero Article | Plural/uncountable general, proper nouns (most), meals, languages, sports, academic subjects | Books are useful. / Water is essential. / India, London / breakfast / English / cricket / History |
| Quantifier | Usage | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Much | Uncountable (negative/questions) | How much water do you need? There isn't much time left. |
| Many | Countable (all contexts) | How many books do you have? Many students attended. |
| A few / Few | Countable A few = some (positive) Few = hardly any (negative) | A few: I have a few friends here. (some friends) Few: Few people came. (hardly anyone) |
| A little / Little | Uncountable A little = some (positive) Little = hardly any (negative) | A little: Add a little sugar. (some sugar) Little: There is little hope. (hardly any hope) |
| Some | Countable/Uncountable Affirmative, offers, requests | I have some books. Would you like some coffee? (offer) Can I have some water? (request) |
| Any | Countable/Uncountable Negative, questions, conditional | I don't have any money. Do you have any questions? If you have any doubt, ask me. |
| Several | Countable (more than two but not many) | Several students were absent. |
| Enough | Countable/Uncountable (sufficient quantity) | Do we have enough chairs? There is enough time. |
| All / Both | All: three or more Both: two | All students passed. Both brothers are doctors. |
| Each / Every | Each: individual focus Every: group focus (both singular) | Each student gets a book. Every student must attend. |
| Either / Neither | Either: one of two (positive) Neither: not one not the other (negative) | Either answer is correct. Neither option is acceptable. |
| Function | Modal | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| Possibility (Present/Future) | may, might, can, could | May: It may rain tomorrow. (moderate possibility) Might: He might come. (less certain) Can: Accidents can happen. (general possibility) Could: It could be true. (possibility) |
| Logical Necessity / Certainty | must | Must: She must be tired. (logical deduction) He must have forgotten. (past deduction) That must be John at the door. |
| Ability in Past | could, was/were able to | Could: I could swim when I was young. (general ability) Was able to: I was able to solve the problem yesterday. (specific achievement) |
| No Necessity / Not Required | needn't, don't need to, don't have to | Needn't: You needn't worry about it. Don't need to: You don't need to come. Don't have to: You don't have to wait. |
| Strong Obligation / Necessity | must, have to, need to | Must: You must obey the rules. (strong obligation) Have to: I have to go now. (external obligation) Need to: We need to finish this today. |
| Advice / Recommendation | should, ought to, had better | Should: You should see a doctor. Ought to: You ought to apologize. Had better: You'd better hurry. |
| Permission | may, can, could | May: May I come in? (formal) Can: Can I borrow your pen? (informal) Could: Could I use your phone? (polite) |
| Prohibition | must not, cannot | Must not: You must not smoke here. Cannot: You cannot enter without permission. |
| Willingness / Refusal | will, won't, would, wouldn't | Will: I'll help you. (willingness) Won't: He won't listen. (refusal) Would: Would you help me? (polite request) |
| Preposition | Usage | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| At | Specific time, specific place (small) | at 5 o'clock, at night, at the bus stop, at home |
| In | Months/years/seasons, cities/countries (large places) | in June, in 2020, in summer, in London, in the morning |
| On | Days/dates, surfaces | on Monday, on 15th August, on the table, on the wall |
| By | Agent (passive), deadline, means | written by Shakespeare, by 5 PM, travel by bus |
| With | Instrument, accompaniment | cut with a knife, go with friends |
| From / To | Starting point / destination | from Delhi to Mumbai, from 9 to 5 |
| For | Duration, purpose, beneficiary | for two hours, for sale, flowers for you |
| Since / For | Since: point in time For: period of time | Since: since 2010, since Monday For: for 5 years, for two days |
| During | Throughout a period | during the war, during summer vacation |
| Phrasal Verb | Meaning | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Take up | Start doing an activity | She took up painting as a hobby. |
| Carry on | Continue doing | Please carry on with your work. |
| Go through | Experience something (often difficult) | He went through a difficult period. |
| Put off | Postpone | The meeting was put off until next week. |
| Break down | Stop working (machine); lose control emotionally | The car broke down on the highway. She broke down in tears. |
| Bring up | Raise (children); mention (topic) | He was brought up in Delhi. Don't bring up that topic. |
| Call off | Cancel | They called off the strike. |
| Come across | Find by chance | I came across an old photo yesterday. |
| Get over | Recover from (illness/shock) | It took him months to get over the loss. |
| Give up | Stop trying; quit | He gave up smoking. |
| Look after | Take care of | She looks after her elderly parents. |
| Look into | Investigate | The police are looking into the matter. |
| Make up | Invent (story); reconcile; compensate | He made up an excuse. They made up after the fight. |
| Run out of | Exhaust supply | We've run out of milk. |
| Set up | Establish, arrange | They set up a new business. |
| Turn down | Reject; reduce volume | He turned down the job offer. Turn down the music. |
| Turn up | Arrive; appear; increase volume | He turned up late. Turn up the volume. |
| Tense | Structure | Use | Example |
|---|---|---|---|
| PRESENT | |||
| Simple Present | V1/V1+s | Habitual actions, universal truths, scheduled future | Habitual: He walks daily. (past action) Truth: Water boils at 100°C. Scheduled: The train leaves at 6 AM. |
| Present Continuous | is/am/are + V-ing | Action happening now, temporary situations, near future | She is writing a letter now. I am staying here for a week. They are coming tomorrow. |
| Present Perfect | has/have + V3 | Completed action with present relevance, experience, just finished | Have read: I have read this book. (experience) She has just arrived. (just finished) They have lived here since 2010. |
| Present Perfect Continuous | has/have been + V-ing | Action started in past, continuing to present, emphasizing duration | She has been writing for two hours. It has been raining since morning. |
| PAST | |||
| Simple Past (Past Tense) | V2 | Completed action in past, specific time mentioned, habitual past | Walked: He walked to school yesterday. (completed) Shakespeare lived in the 16th century. (habitual past) |
| Past Continuous | was/were + V-ing | Action in progress at specific past time, interrupted action, two simultaneous past actions | I was reading when he called. While she was cooking, I was cleaning. |
| Past Perfect | had + V3 | Action completed before another past action (earlier past) | Had forgotten: She had forgotten to bring the book. (before she realized) The train had left before I arrived. |
| Past Perfect Continuous | had been + V-ing | Ongoing action before another past action, emphasizing duration | He had been waiting for an hour before she came. They had been living there for 5 years before they moved. |
| FUTURE | |||
| Simple Future | will/shall + V1 | Future actions, predictions, spontaneous decisions | I will go tomorrow. It will rain tonight. I'll help you. (spontaneous) |
| Future Continuous | will be + V-ing | Action in progress at specific future time | I will be studying at 8 PM tomorrow. This time next week, I'll be traveling. |
| Future Perfect | will have + V3 | Action completed before specific future time | I will have finished by 5 PM. She will have left by the time you arrive. |
| Future Perfect Continuous | will have been + V-ing | Ongoing action before specific future time, emphasizing duration | By next year, I will have been teaching for 10 years. In June, we will have been living here for a decade. |
| Main Clause | Subordinate Clause | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Present | Present / Past / Future | He says (that) he is busy. (present) He says (that) he was busy. (past) He says (that) he will be busy. (future) |
| Past | Past / Past Perfect | He said (that) he was busy. (past) He said (that) he had been busy. (earlier past) |
| Sequential Past Events | Use Past Perfect for earlier action | When I reached the station, the train had already left. (left happened before reached) |
| Universal Truth (Exception) | Remains in Present even after Past reporting verb | The teacher said that water boils at 100°C. (NOT "boiled" - universal truth) |
| Idiom | Meaning | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Storm in a tea cup | Fuss about something unimportant | Their argument was just a storm in a tea cup. |
| To pick a quarrel | To deliberately start an argument | He always picks a quarrel over trivial matters. |
| To bury the hatchet | To make peace, end a conflict | After years of rivalry, they finally buried the hatchet. |
| To break the ice | To initiate conversation in awkward situation | He told a joke to break the ice at the meeting. |
| A piece of cake | Something very easy | The exam was a piece of cake. |
| Beat around the bush | Avoid talking directly about something | Stop beating around the bush and tell me the truth. |
| Bite the bullet | Face a difficult situation bravely | You'll have to bite the bullet and apologize. |
| Once in a blue moon | Very rarely | He visits us once in a blue moon. |
| Cry over spilt milk | Regret something that cannot be changed | It's no use crying over spilt milk. |
| Hit the nail on the head | Say something exactly right | You hit the nail on the head with that comment. |
| Let the cat out of the bag | Reveal a secret accidentally | He let the cat out of the bag about the surprise party. |
| Pull someone's leg | Tease or joke with someone | Don't worry, I'm just pulling your leg. |
| Under the weather | Feeling unwell or sick | I'm feeling a bit under the weather today. |
| Blessing in disguise | Something good that seemed bad at first | Losing that job was a blessing in disguise. |
| Call it a day | Stop working, finish for the day | It's getting late; let's call it a day. |
| Component | Symbol | Function | Example |
|---|---|---|---|
| Subject | S | Performs action / about whom statement is made | She reads books. |
| Verb | V | Action or state of being | She reads books. |
| Direct Object | DO | Receives action of verb (answers "what" or "whom") | She reads books. |
| Indirect Object | IO | For whom / to whom action is done | She gave him a book. (him = IO) |
| Object Complement | Obj. Compliment | Completes meaning of direct object | They elected him president. (president describes him) |
| Subject Complement | Sub. Compliment | Describes/identifies subject (after linking verb) | She is a teacher. (teacher describes she) |
| Adverbial | Adv | Modifies verb (time/place/manner) | She reads daily. / She reads in the library. |
| Pattern | Structure | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Pattern 1 | S + V | Birds fly. The baby cried. |
| Pattern 2 | S + V + DO | She reads books. He wrote a letter. |
| Pattern 3 | S + V + IO + DO | She gave him a book. I sent her a message. |
| Pattern 4 | S + V + DO + Obj. Compliment | They elected him president. She painted the wall blue. |
| Pattern 5 | S + V + Sub. Compliment | She is a teacher. He seems happy. |
| Pattern 6 | S + V + Adv | She lives in Delhi. The meeting is tomorrow. |
| Pattern 7 | S + V + DO + Adv | She reads books daily. He put the keys on the table. |
| Type | Structure | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Simple Sentence | One independent clause | He worked hard. |
| Compound Sentence | Two or more independent clauses joined by coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, so, for, yet, nor) | He worked hard, and he succeeded. She studied well, but she failed. |
| Complex Sentence | One independent + one or more dependent clauses (using subordinating conjunctions) | He succeeded because he worked hard. Although she studied well, she failed. |
| Conjunction | Use | Example |
|---|---|---|
| because, since, as | Reason/Cause | He succeeded because he worked hard. |
| although, though, even though | Contrast/Concession | Although it rained, we went out. |
| if, unless | Condition | If you work hard, you will succeed. Unless you hurry, you'll miss the train. |
| when, while, as, before, after, until | Time | When I reached, he had left. |
| so that, in order that | Purpose | He worked hard so that he could succeed. |
| lest | Negative Purpose (with should) | Work hard lest you should fail. He ran fast lest he should miss the train. |
| Type | Active | Passive |
|---|---|---|
| Modal + Must | We must leave the decision to him. | The decision must be left to him (by us). |
| Let (Permission) | They let us go. | We were let go (by them). OR: We were allowed to go. |
| Make (Force) | They made him work. | He was made to work (by them). (Note: "to" added before verb) |
| Belief/Opinion Verbs | People believe that dreams come true. | It is believed that dreams come true. OR: Dreams are believed to come true. |
| Say/Think/Know/Believe | They say that he is honest. | It is said that he is honest. OR: He is said to be honest. |
| Interrogative | Who wrote this book? | By whom was this book written? OR: Who was this book written by? |
| Imperative | Open the door. | Let the door be opened. OR: You are requested/ordered to open the door. |
| Negative Imperative | Don't touch it. | Let it not be touched. OR: You are ordered not to touch it. |
| Double Object | He gave me a book. | Option 1: I was given a book (by him). Option 2: A book was given to me (by him). |
| Sentence Type | Direct Speech | Indirect Speech |
|---|---|---|
| Statement | He said, "I am tired." | He said (that) he was tired. |
| Yes/No Question | He said, "Are you coming?" | He asked if/whether I was coming. |
| Wh- Question | She said, "Where do you live?" | She asked where I lived. |
| Command | He said, "Sit down!" | He ordered/commanded me to sit down. |
| Request | She said, "Please help me." | She requested/asked me to help her. |
| Negative Command | He said, "Don't go there." | He told/ordered me not to go there. |
| Suggestion | He said, "Let's go." | He suggested going / that we should go. |
| Exclamation | She said, "What a beautiful day!" | She exclaimed with joy that it was a very beautiful day. |
| Wish/Prayer | He said, "May you live long!" | He prayed/wished that I might live long. |
| Affirmative | Negative |
|---|---|
| He is honest. | He is not dishonest. |
| She was present. | She was not absent. |
| I like coffee. | I do not dislike coffee. |
| He always comes late. | He never comes on time. |
| Everybody liked the film. | Nobody disliked the film. |
| Both brothers are doctors. | Neither brother is uneducated. |
| Affirmative | Interrogative |
|---|---|
| He is a teacher. | Is he a teacher? |
| She can swim. | Can she swim? |
| They work hard. | Do they work hard? |
| He wrote a letter. | Did he write a letter? |
| Nobody knows the answer. | Does anybody know the answer? |
| Statement | Question Tag | Rule |
|---|---|---|
| He is a doctor, | isn't he? | Positive statement → Negative tag |
| She can't swim, | can she? | Negative statement → Positive tag |
| They work hard, | don't they? | Simple Present → do/does |
| He wrote a letter, | didn't he? | Simple Past → did |
| She has finished, | hasn't she? | Present Perfect → has/have |
| Let's go, | shall we? | Let's → shall we |
| Open the door, | will you? | Imperative → will you |
| He seldom comes, | does he? | Seldom/hardly/scarcely (negative meaning) → Positive tag |
| She never lies, | does she? | Never/no/nobody (negative) → Positive tag |
| I am right, | aren't I? | "I am" → aren't I (exception) |
| Type | Definition | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Main/Independent Clause | Complete sentence, can stand alone | She went to the market. |
| Subordinate/Dependent Clause | Cannot stand alone, depends on main clause | When she went to the market... (incomplete) |
| Noun Clause | Functions as noun, starts with that/wh-words | I know that he is honest. What he said is true. |
| Adjective Clause | Modifies noun, starts with who/which/that/where/when | The man who came yesterday is my uncle. |
| Adverb Clause | Modifies verb, starts with when/where/because/if/although | She cried because she was sad. |
| Type | Structure | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Simple Sentence | One independent clause | She reads books. |
| Compound Sentence | Two or more independent clauses joined by coordinating conjunction | She reads books, and he writes poems. |
| Complex Sentence | One independent + one or more dependent clauses | She reads books when she has time. |
| Compound-Complex Sentence | Two or more independent + one or more dependent clauses | She reads books when she has time, and he writes poems. |
| Type | Structure | Use | Example |
|---|---|---|---|
| Zero Conditional | If + Present Simple, Present Simple | Universal truths, general facts | If you heat water to 100°C, it boils. |
| First Conditional | If + Present Simple, will + V1 | Real/possible future condition | If it rains, I will stay home. |
| Second Conditional | If + Past Simple, would + V1 | Unreal/hypothetical present/future | If I were rich, I would buy a car. (but I'm not rich) |
| Third Conditional | If + Past Perfect, would have + V3 | Unreal past condition (regret) | If I had studied, I would have passed. (but I didn't study) |
| Mixed Conditional | If + Past Perfect, would + V1 | Unreal past condition, unreal present result | If I had studied harder, I would be a doctor now. |
| Rule | Explanation | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Basic Rule | Singular subject → Singular verb Plural subject → Plural verb | The boy walks. (singular) The boys walk. (plural) |
| Indefinite Pronouns (Singular) | Each, every, either, neither, one, someone, anyone, everyone, no one, nobody, somebody, anybody, everybody → Singular verb | Each of the students has a book. Everyone is present. Neither of them knows the answer. |
| Indefinite Pronouns (Plural) | Both, few, many, several → Plural verb | Both of them are doctors. Few students were absent. Many people have complained. |
| Indefinite Pronouns (Depends on noun) | All, most, some, any, none → Depends on noun that follows | All the money is spent. (uncountable) All the books are sold. (countable) Some water is left. / Some students are absent. |
| Collective Nouns (Group as Unit) | When group acts as unit → Singular verb | The team is ready. The committee has decided. The jury was unanimous. |
| Collective Nouns (Members as Individuals) | When members act individually → Plural verb | The team are arguing among themselves. The committee have different opinions. |
| Two Subjects Joined by "and" | "And" makes compound subject → Plural verb | Ram and Sita are friends. The teacher and the student have arrived. |
| Exception: Single Unit | When two nouns refer to ONE person/thing → Singular verb | The poet and philosopher is dead. (one person) Bread and butter is my breakfast. (one item) |
| Subjects Joined by "or/nor" | Verb agrees with NEAREST subject | Either the teacher or the students are wrong. Either the students or the teacher is wrong. Neither he nor I am responsible. |
| Subjects Joined by "with/along with/as well as/besides/in addition to" | Verb agrees with FIRST subject | The teacher, along with the students, is coming. The students, as well as the teacher, are invited. Ram, with his friends, has arrived. |
| Distance, Time, Money (as unit) | Treated as singular when indicating a unit | Ten kilometers is a long distance. Five years is a long time. Fifty rupees is enough. |
| Percent/Fraction | Depends on noun that follows | Fifty percent of the students are present. (plural) Fifty percent of the water is contaminated. (singular) Half the money is gone. / Half the apples are rotten. |
| There/Here Constructions | Subject comes AFTER verb; verb agrees with actual subject | There is a book on the table. (one book) There are books on the table. (many books) Here comes the bus. / Here come the buses. |
| Titles, Names, Words Referred to as Words | Always singular | The Arabian Nights is an interesting book. "United States" is a proper noun. Gulliver's Travels was written by Swift. |
| Plural Form but Singular Meaning | News, mathematics, physics, economics, politics, athletics → Singular | The news is good. Mathematics is difficult. Physics was his favorite subject. |
| Plural Form and Plural Meaning | Scissors, trousers, spectacles, pants, pliers, tongs → Plural | The scissors are sharp. His trousers are torn. My spectacles are broken. |
| Relative Pronouns (who, which, that) | Verb agrees with antecedent | He is the only one of the students who has passed. (one has) He is one of the students who have passed. (students have) |
| The Number vs. A Number | The number = singular A number = plural | The number of students is increasing. A number of students have failed. |
| Base Form (V1) | Past (V2) | Past Participle (V3) | Meaning |
|---|---|---|---|
| arise | arose | arisen | उठना, उत्पन्न होना |
| bear | bore | borne/born | सहना, जन्म देना |
| beat | beat | beaten | पीटना, हराना |
| become | became | become | बनना |
| begin | began | begun | शुरू करना |
| bid | bid/bade | bid/bidden | बोली लगाना |
| bite | bit | bitten | काटना |
| blow | blew | blown | फूंक मारना |
| break | broke | broken | तोड़ना |
| bring | brought | brought | लाना |
| build | built | built | बनाना |
| burn | burnt/burned | burnt/burned | जलाना |
| buy | bought | bought | खरीदना |
| catch | caught | caught | पकड़ना |
| choose | chose | chosen | चुनना |
| come | came | come | आना |
| cost | cost | cost | कीमत होना |
| cut | cut | cut | काटना |
| dig | dug | dug | खोदना |
| do | did | done | करना |
| draw | drew | drawn | खींचना, चित्र बनाना |
| drink | drank | drunk | पीना |
| drive | drove | driven | चलाना |
| eat | ate | eaten | खाना |
| fall | fell | fallen | गिरना |
| feed | fed | fed | खिलाना |
| feel | felt | felt | महसूस करना |
| fight | fought | fought | लड़ना |
| find | found | found | पाना, खोजना |
| fly | flew | flown | उड़ना |
| forbid | forbade | forbidden | मना करना |
| forget | forgot | forgotten | भूल जाना |
| forgive | forgave | forgiven | माफ़ करना |
| freeze | froze | frozen | जम जाना |
| get | got | got/gotten | पाना, प्राप्त करना |
| give | gave | given | देना |
| go | went | gone | जाना |
| grow | grew | grown | बढ़ना |
| hang | hung/hanged | hung/hanged | लटकाना (hanged = फांसी देना) |
| have | had | had | रखना, होना |
| hear | heard | heard | सुनना |
| hide | hid | hidden | छिपाना |
| hit | hit | hit | मारना |
| hold | held | held | पकड़ना |
| hurt | hurt | hurt | चोट पहुंचाना |
| keep | kept | kept | रखना |
| know | knew | known | जानना |
| lay | laid | laid | रखना, बिछाना |
| lead | led | led | नेतृत्व करना |
| leave | left | left | छोड़ना, चले जाना |
| lend | lent | lent | उधार देना |
| let | let | let | अनुमति देना |
| lie (recline) | lay | lain | लेटना |
| lie (falsehood) | lied | lied | झूठ बोलना |
| lose | lost | lost | खोना |
| make | made | made | बनाना |
| mean | meant | meant | अर्थ होना |
| meet | met | met | मिलना |
| pay | paid | paid | भुगतान करना |
| put | put | put | रखना |
| read | read (/red/) | read (/red/) | पढ़ना |
| ride | rode | ridden | सवारी करना |
| ring | rang | rung | घंटी बजाना |
| rise | rose | risen | उठना, ऊपर जाना |
| run | ran | run | दौड़ना |
| say | said | said | कहना |
| see | saw | seen | देखना |
| seek | sought | sought | खोजना |
| sell | sold | sold | बेचना |
| send | sent | sent | भेजना |
| set | set | set | सेट करना, रखना |
| shake | shook | shaken | हिलाना |
| shine | shone/shined | shone/shined | चमकना |
| shoot | shot | shot | गोली मारना |
| show | showed | shown/showed | दिखाना |
| shrink | shrank | shrunk | सिकुड़ना |
| shut | shut | shut | बंद करना |
| sing | sang | sung | गाना |
| sink | sank | sunk | डूबना |
| sit | sat | sat | बैठना |
| sleep | slept | slept | सोना |
| speak | spoke | spoken | बोलना |
| spend | spent | spent | खर्च करना |
| spread | spread | spread | फैलाना |
| stand | stood | stood | खड़ा होना |
| steal | stole | stolen | चोरी करना |
| strike | struck | struck/stricken | मारना, हड़ताल |
| swear | swore | sworn | कसम खाना |
| sweep | swept | swept | झाड़ू लगाना |
| swim | swam | swum | तैरना |
| swing | swung | swung | झूलना |
| take | took | taken | लेना |
| teach | taught | taught | पढ़ाना |
| tear | tore | torn | फाड़ना |
| tell | told | told | बताना |
| think | thought | thought | सोचना |
| throw | threw | thrown | फेंकना |
| understand | understood | understood | समझना |
| wake | woke/waked | woken/waked | जगाना |
| wear | wore | worn | पहनना |
| win | won | won | जीतना |
| write | wrote | written | लिखना |
| Phrasal Verb | Meaning | Example |
|---|---|---|
| ask out | Invite someone on a date | He finally asked her out. |
| break up (with) | End a relationship | They broke up last year. |
| fall for | Fall in love with | She fell for him instantly. |
| get along/on (with) | Have a good relationship | I get along well with my colleagues. |
| make up | Reconcile after argument | They made up after the fight. |
| look up to | Respect and admire | Children look up to their parents. |
| look down on | Think of as inferior | He looks down on less educated people. |
| stand by | Support in difficult time | She stood by him during his illness. |
| fall out (with) | Have an argument, stop being friends | They fell out over money. |
| grow apart | Gradually become less close | Old friends often grow apart. |
| Phrasal Verb | Meaning | Example |
|---|---|---|
| carry on | Continue doing | Carry on with your work. |
| go on | Continue | The meeting went on for hours. |
| keep on | Continue doing (often annoying) | He kept on complaining. |
| give up | Stop trying; quit | Don't give up hope. |
| call off | Cancel | They called off the wedding. |
| break off | End suddenly | He broke off his engagement. |
| cut off | Stop supply; disconnect | The electricity was cut off. |
| knock off | Stop work for the day | Let's knock off at 5 PM. |
| leave off | Stop doing something | Where did we leave off? |
| wind up | Finish, end | Let's wind up this discussion. |
| Phrasal Verb | Meaning | Example |
|---|---|---|
| set up | Establish, arrange, start | They set up a new company. |
| start up | Begin operation (business, machine) | The engine started up. |
| take up | Begin a hobby/activity | She took up yoga last year. |
| set out | Begin a journey; begin with intention | They set out at dawn. / He set out to prove his point. |
| kick off | Start (informal) | The campaign kicks off tomorrow. |
| embark on | Start (important project/journey) | He embarked on a new career. |
| get down to | Start doing seriously | Let's get down to business. |
| set about | Begin doing; start task | He set about repairing the roof. |
| Phrasal Verb | Meaning | Example |
|---|---|---|
| come across | Find by chance | I came across an old photo. |
| find out | Discover information | I found out the truth. |
| figure out | Understand; solve | I can't figure out this puzzle. |
| work out | Solve; calculate; understand | Work out the answer. |
| make out | See, hear or understand with difficulty | I can't make out what he's saying. |
| pick up | Learn (skill/language) informally | She picked up Spanish quickly. |
| catch on | Understand; become popular | He's slow to catch on. |
| look into | Investigate | The police are looking into the case. |
| see through | Recognize true nature (not be deceived) | I saw through his lies. |
| Phrasal Verb | Meaning | Example |
|---|---|---|
| break down | Stop working; lose emotional control | The car broke down. / She broke down in tears. |
| go through | Experience (difficulty) | He went through a lot of pain. |
| go wrong | Stop working correctly; have problems | Everything went wrong that day. |
| come up against | Face (problem/opposition) | We came up against unexpected problems. |
| run into | Experience (problem); meet by chance | We ran into difficulties. |
| get over | Recover from (illness/shock) | She got over her illness quickly. |
| deal with | Handle; take action about | I'll deal with this problem. |
| cope with | Manage to deal with (difficult situation) | She couldn't cope with the stress. |
| put up with | Tolerate | I can't put up with his rudeness. |
| face up to | Accept and deal with (unpleasant reality) | You must face up to your responsibilities. |
| Phrasal Verb | Meaning | Example |
|---|---|---|
| put off | Postpone | Don't put off till tomorrow what you can do today. |
| hold off | Delay; postpone | Let's hold off making a decision. |
| put back | Postpone to later date | The meeting was put back to Friday. |
| hold up | Delay | Traffic held us up for an hour. |
| slow down/up | Reduce speed; delay progress | Slow down! You're driving too fast. |
| drag on | Continue longer than expected (boring) | The meeting dragged on for hours. |
| Phrasal Verb | Meaning | Example |
|---|---|---|
| bring up | Mention (topic) | Don't bring up that subject. |
| point out | Indicate; draw attention to | He pointed out the error. |
| get across | Make understood | He couldn't get his point across. |
| put across | Communicate successfully | She put her ideas across well. |
| speak up | Speak louder; express opinion | Speak up! I can't hear you. |
| speak out | State opinion publicly (on issue) | He spoke out against injustice. |
| let on | Reveal secret | Don't let on that I told you. |
| let out | Reveal (secret); release | Who let out the secret? |
| give away | Reveal secret | His expression gave away his feelings. |
| get through (to) | Make contact; make someone understand | I can't get through to him on the phone. / I can't get through to him (he doesn't understand). |
| Phrasal Verb | Meaning | Example |
|---|---|---|
| go up | Increase | Prices went up again. |
| go down | Decrease | The temperature went down. |
| pick up | Improve; increase | Business is picking up. |
| die down | Become less strong; fade | The storm died down. |
| build up | Increase gradually | Traffic builds up during rush hour. |
| cut down (on) | Reduce amount consumed | I'm cutting down on sugar. |
| scale down | Reduce in size/extent | They scaled down the project. |
| step up | Increase (effort/production) | We must step up production. |
| Verb + Preposition | Example |
|---|---|
| accuse someone OF | He accused me of lying. |
| agree WITH (person) / ON (thing) / TO (proposal) | I agree with you. / We agreed on the plan. / He agreed to help. |
| apologize TO someone FOR something | He apologized to her for being late. |
| apply FOR (job/permission) / TO (person/place) | She applied for the job. / Apply to the manager. |
| approve OF | I don't approve of his behavior. |
| argue WITH someone ABOUT something | He argued with me about politics. |
| arrive AT (small place) / IN (city/country) | We arrived at the station. / They arrived in Delhi. |
| ask FOR | He asked for help. |
| believe IN | I believe in hard work. |
| belong TO | This book belongs to me. |
| blame someone FOR something | Don't blame me for your mistakes. |
| care ABOUT/FOR | She cares about her family. |
| complain TO someone ABOUT something | He complained to the manager about the service. |
| concentrate ON | Concentrate on your work. |
| congratulate someone ON | I congratulated him on his success. |
| consist OF | The team consists of 11 players. |
| deal WITH | I'll deal with this problem. |
| depend ON | It depends on the weather. |
| differ FROM | My opinion differs from yours. |
| divide INTO | Divide it into three parts. |
| dream OF/ABOUT | I dream of becoming a doctor. |
| excuse someone FOR | Excuse me for interrupting. |
| insist ON | He insisted on paying. |
| laugh AT | Don't laugh at others. |
| listen TO | Listen to me carefully. |
| look AT / FOR / AFTER | Look at this. / I'm looking for my keys. / Look after yourself. |
| object TO | I object to this proposal. |
| pay FOR | I paid for the tickets. |
| prefer something TO something | I prefer tea to coffee. |
| prevent someone FROM | Nothing can prevent me from succeeding. |
| provide someone WITH something | The school provides students with books. |
| rely ON | You can rely on me. |
| remind someone OF/ABOUT | She reminds me of my sister. |
| search FOR | They're searching for the missing child. |
| spend money ON / spend time IN | I spent Rs. 100 on books. / He spends his time in reading. |
| succeed IN | She succeeded in her attempt. |
| suffer FROM | He suffers from diabetes. |
| suspect someone OF | They suspected him of theft. |
| thank someone FOR | I thanked him for his help. |
| think OF/ABOUT | What do you think of this idea? |
| wait FOR | Wait for me. |
| warn someone OF/ABOUT/AGAINST | He warned me of the danger. / He warned me against trusting him. |
| Adjective + Preposition | Example |
|---|---|
| afraid OF | She is afraid of dogs. |
| angry WITH (person) / ABOUT (thing) | He is angry with me. / I'm angry about the delay. |
| anxious ABOUT | She is anxious about the results. |
| ashamed OF | He is ashamed of his behavior. |
| aware OF | I'm aware of the problem. |
| bad AT | I'm bad at mathematics. |
| bored WITH/OF | I'm bored with this job. |
| capable OF | She is capable of great things. |
| careful WITH/OF | Be careful with that knife. |
| certain OF/ABOUT | I'm certain of his honesty. |
| clever AT | He is clever at solving puzzles. |
| concerned ABOUT | I'm concerned about your health. |
| different FROM | This is different from that. |
| disappointed WITH (person) / IN (thing) | I'm disappointed with you. / I'm disappointed in the result. |
| excited ABOUT | She is excited about the trip. |
| familiar WITH / TO | I'm familiar with this topic. / This face is familiar to me. |
| famous FOR | Taj Mahal is famous for its beauty. |
| fond OF | She is fond of music. |
| good AT | He is good at cricket. |
| guilty OF | He was found guilty of murder. |
| interested IN | I'm interested in history. |
| jealous OF | She is jealous of her sister. |
| keen ON | He is keen on joining the army. |
| kind TO | Be kind to animals. |
| married TO | She is married to a doctor. |
| pleased WITH | I'm pleased with your progress. |
| polite TO | Be polite to elders. |
| proud OF | I'm proud of you. |
| responsible FOR | Who is responsible for this? |
| satisfied WITH | Are you satisfied with the result? |
| similar TO | This is similar to that. |
| sorry FOR/ABOUT | I'm sorry for being late. |
| suitable FOR | This dress is suitable for the occasion. |
| surprised AT/BY | I was surprised at his behavior. |
| tired OF | I'm tired of waiting. |
| worried ABOUT | Don't be worried about me. |
| Noun + Preposition | Example |
|---|---|
| addiction TO | addiction to drugs |
| advantage OF/OVER | take advantage of the opportunity |
| advice ON/ABOUT | advice on career choices |
| answer TO | answer to the question |
| belief IN | belief in God |
| cause OF | the cause of the accident |
| connection WITH/BETWEEN | connection with the crime |
| damage TO | damage to the building |
| demand FOR | demand for skilled workers |
| difference BETWEEN | difference between them |
| difficulty IN/WITH | difficulty in understanding |
| example OF | an example of bravery |
| exception TO | exception to the rule |
| increase IN | increase in prices |
| interest IN | interest in sports |
| lack OF | lack of funds |
| need FOR | need for change |
| reason FOR | reason for his absence |
| relationship WITH/BETWEEN | relationship with colleagues |
| solution TO | solution to the problem |
| Error Type | Incorrect | Correct |
|---|---|---|
| Subject-Verb Agreement | He don't know. | He doesn't know. |
| Tense Consistency | He went to market and buys apples. | He went to market and bought apples. |
| Double Negative | I don't have no money. | I don't have any money. / I have no money. |
| Pronoun-Antecedent | Everyone should bring their book. (Everyone = singular) | Everyone should bring his/her book. OR: Students should bring their books. |
| Dangling Modifier | Walking down the street, the trees were beautiful. | Walking down the street, I saw beautiful trees. |
| Misplaced Modifier | I only ate two apples. (suggests that's all you did) | I ate only two apples. (limits the number) |
| Fewer vs. Less | Less people came. | Fewer people came. (fewer = countable, less = uncountable) |
| Between vs. Among | Divide it among the two of us. | Divide it between the two of us. (between = 2, among = 3 or more) |
| Who vs. Whom | Whom is coming? | Who is coming? (who = subject, whom = object) |
| Its vs. It's | The dog wagged it's tail. | The dog wagged its tail. (its = possessive, it's = it is) |
| Idiom | Meaning | Example |
|---|---|---|
| At loggerheads | In strong disagreement | The two parties are at loggerheads over the issue. |
| Blow one's top | Lose one's temper | He blew his top when he heard the news. |
| Fly off the handle | Suddenly become very angry | Don't fly off the handle over small things. |
| Add fuel to the fire | Make a bad situation worse | His comments added fuel to the fire. |
| Cross swords with | Fight or argue with | I don't want to cross swords with him. |
| Bury the hatchet | Make peace, end a conflict | They finally buried the hatchet after years. |
| Pick a quarrel | Deliberately start an argument | He always picks a quarrel over trivial matters. |
| Idiom | Meaning | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Hit the nail on the head | Say/do something exactly right | You hit the nail on the head with that analysis. |
| Hit the jackpot | Achieve great success unexpectedly | She hit the jackpot with her new business. |
| Back to square one | Return to the beginning | The plan failed, so we're back to square one. |
| Go down in flames | Fail spectacularly | His business venture went down in flames. |
| Make the grade | Reach the required standard | Only the best candidates make the grade. |
| Miss the boat | Miss an opportunity | He missed the boat by not investing earlier. |
| Come off with flying colors | Succeed brilliantly | She came off with flying colors in the exam. |
| Idiom | Meaning | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Up the creek without a paddle | In a difficult situation with no solution | Without his help, we're up the creek without a paddle. |
| Between a rock and a hard place | Faced with two equally difficult choices | I'm between a rock and a hard place on this decision. |
| Up against the wall | In a very difficult position | With the deadline approaching, we're up against the wall. |
| Go through fire and water | Face great difficulties | He went through fire and water to help her. |
| Between the devil and the deep sea | Between two dangers/difficulties | Choosing between them puts me between the devil and the deep sea. |
| Bite the bullet | Face a difficult situation bravely | You'll have to bite the bullet and apologize. |
| A tough/hard nut to crack | A difficult problem/person to deal with | This math problem is a hard nut to crack. |
| Idiom | Meaning | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Cost an arm and a leg | Very expensive | That car cost him an arm and a leg. |
| Break the bank | Cost too much money | Don't worry, it won't break the bank. |
| Make ends meet | Have just enough money to live | It's hard to make ends meet these days. |
| Born with a silver spoon in one's mouth | Born into a wealthy family | He was born with a silver spoon in his mouth. |
| Pay through the nose | Pay too much for something | We paid through the nose for that hotel. |
| Rolling in money | Very rich | After the business deal, he's rolling in money. |
| Throw money down the drain | Waste money | Buying that car was throwing money down the drain. |
| Idiom | Meaning | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Pull the wool over someone's eyes | Deceive someone | Don't try to pull the wool over my eyes. |
| Lead someone up the garden path | Deceive/mislead someone | He led her up the garden path with false promises. |
| Show one's true colors | Reveal one's real character | He finally showed his true colors. |
| Call a spade a spade | Speak plainly and honestly | I believe in calling a spade a spade. |
| On the level | Honest and sincere | I think his offer is on the level. |
| Give someone the runaround | Avoid giving a direct answer | The company gave us the runaround for months. |
| Idiom | Meaning | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Spill the beans | Reveal a secret | Who spilled the beans about the surprise party? |
| Let the cat out of the bag | Reveal a secret accidentally | He let the cat out of the bag about the merger. |
| Beat around the bush | Avoid talking directly about something | Stop beating around the bush and tell me. |
| Get something off one's chest | Confess something that's troubling you | I need to get this off my chest. |
| Talk shop | Discuss work matters | Let's not talk shop at the party. |
| Put one's foot in one's mouth | Say something embarrassing by mistake | I really put my foot in my mouth with that comment. |
| Give someone a piece of one's mind | Tell someone angrily what you think | I gave him a piece of my mind about his behavior. |
| Phrase | One Word | Example |
|---|---|---|
| One who eats human flesh | Cannibal | The tribe was accused of being cannibals. |
| One who doesn't believe in God | Atheist | He is an atheist and doesn't follow any religion. |
| One who believes in God | Theist | As a theist, she prays daily. |
| One who is doubtful about God's existence | Agnostic | He is agnostic about spiritual matters. |
| A government by the people | Democracy | India is the world's largest democracy. |
| A government by a king or queen | Monarchy | Britain has a constitutional monarchy. |
| A government by the wealthy | Plutocracy | Critics say the country has become a plutocracy. |
| A government by officials | Bureaucracy | The system is burdened by excessive bureaucracy. |
| A government by a single person with absolute power | Autocracy / Dictatorship | The country suffered under an autocracy for decades. |
| A government by the military | Military Junta | A military junta seized power in the coup. |
| A government by women | Gynecocracy | Some ancient societies were gynecracies. |
| One who loves books | Bibliophile | As a bibliophile, he has a huge collection. |
| One who loves mankind | Philanthropist | The philanthropist donated millions to charity. |
| One who hates mankind | Misanthrope | The misanthrope avoided all social gatherings. |
| One who hates women | Misogynist | His comments revealed him as a misogynist. |
| One who speaks many languages | Polyglot | She is a polyglot, fluent in seven languages. |
| One who cannot read or write | Illiterate | The program aims to educate illiterate adults. |
| One who walks in sleep | Somnambulist | Somnambulists may walk around while asleep. |
| One who collects stamps | Philatelist | The philatelist had rare stamps from 50 countries. |
| One who collects coins | Numismatist | As a numismatist, he values ancient coins. |
| Study of birds | Ornithology | Ornithology has revealed much about bird migration. |
| Study of insects | Entomology | He specializes in entomology at the university. |
| Study of animals | Zoology | Zoology helps us understand animal behavior. |
| Study of plants | Botany | Botany is essential for understanding ecosystems. |
| Study of human society | Sociology | Sociology examines social institutions and relationships. |
| Study of the mind | Psychology | Psychology explores human behavior and mental processes. |
| Study of ancient civilizations through artifacts | Archaeology | Archaeology has uncovered ancient cities. |
| Study of rocks and earth | Geology | Geology helps us understand earthquakes. |
| Study of stars and celestial bodies | Astronomy | Astronomy reveals the mysteries of the universe. |
| A place where bees are kept | Apiary | The farm has an apiary with 50 hives. |
| A place where birds are kept | Aviary | The zoo's aviary houses exotic birds. |
| A place where dead bodies are kept | Mortuary / Morgue | The body was taken to the mortuary. |
| A place where historical documents are stored | Archives | The national archives contain valuable records. |
| A place where wine is made | Brewery / Winery | The winery produces award-winning wines. |
| A building where aircraft are kept | Hangar | The plane was stored in a hangar. |
| A room for storing food | Pantry | The pantry is stocked with groceries. |
| A place where soldiers live | Barracks | The soldiers returned to the barracks. |
| A place where monks live | Monastery | The monastery was built in the 12th century. |
| A place where nuns live | Convent | She joined a convent after college. |
| Murder of one's father | Patricide | He was convicted of patricide. |
| Murder of one's mother | Matricide | Matricide is a heinous crime. |
| Murder of one's brother | Fratricide | The ancient story involved fratricide. |
| Murder of one's sister | Sororicide | Sororicide is extremely rare. |
| Murder of a king | Regicide | The revolutionaries committed regicide. |
| Killing of a human being | Homicide | He was charged with homicide. |
| Killing of oneself | Suicide | Suicide prevention is crucial. |
| Killing of an infant | Infanticide | Infanticide was once practiced in some cultures. |
| A period of 100 years | Century | We're in the 21st century. |
| A period of 1000 years | Millennium | The new millennium began in 2000. |
| A period of 10 years | Decade | The last decade saw rapid changes. |
| A period of 15 days or 2 weeks | Fortnight | I'll return in a fortnight. |
| Occurring every year | Annual | The annual meeting is in December. |
| Occurring every two years | Biennial | The biennial report is due. |
| Occurring twice a year | Biannual / Semi-annual | We have biannual reviews. |
| Lasting for a very short time | Ephemeral / Transient | Fame can be ephemeral. |
| Lasting forever | Eternal / Perpetual | They pledged eternal love. |
| A person who is 100 or more years old | Centenarian | The village has three centenarians. |
| A person who is 80-89 years old | Octogenarian | The octogenarian still runs marathons. |
| A person who is 90-99 years old | Nonagenarian | My nonagenarian grandmother is very active. |
| A person who is from 10-19 years old | Teenager / Adolescent | Teenagers face many challenges. |
| A person who looks at the bright side | Optimist | As an optimist, she always sees hope. |
| A person who looks at the dark side | Pessimist | The pessimist expected failure. |
| A speech made without preparation | Extempore / Impromptu | He gave an extempore speech. |
| A medicine that kills bacteria | Antibiotic | The doctor prescribed antibiotics. |
| A cure for all diseases | Panacea | There is no panacea for society's problems. |
| A person who is new to a profession | Novice / Neophyte | As a novice, she made some mistakes. |
| A person with expert knowledge | Connoisseur / Expert | He is a connoisseur of fine wines. |
| A person who leaves one country to settle in another | Emigrant | Many emigrants left during the famine. |
| A person who comes to live in a foreign country | Immigrant | America was built by immigrants. |
| One who cannot be corrected | Incorrigible | He is an incorrigible liar. |
| One who cannot make mistakes | Infallible | No human being is infallible. |
| That which cannot be read | Illegible | His handwriting is illegible. |
| That which cannot be heard | Inaudible | Her voice was inaudible in the noise. |
| That which cannot be explained | Inexplicable | The event was inexplicable. |
| That which cannot be avoided | Inevitable / Unavoidable | Death is inevitable. |
| That which cannot be defeated | Invincible | The army seemed invincible. |
| That which cannot be seen | Invisible | Air is invisible. |
| That which cannot be believed | Incredible / Unbelievable | The story was incredible. |
| An exact copy | Facsimile / Replica | This is a facsimile of the original. |
| A person who pretends to be what he is not | Hypocrite | Don't be a hypocrite. |
| A formal speech | Oration | His oration inspired the crowd. |
| A long wandering journey | Odyssey | His career has been an odyssey. |
| A book published after the author's death | Posthumous | His posthumous novel won an award. |
| Animals that eat flesh | Carnivorous | Lions are carnivorous. |
| Animals that eat plants | Herbivorous | Cows are herbivorous. |
| Animals that eat both plants and flesh | Omnivorous | Humans are omnivorous. |
| Word | Synonyms | Usage Example |
|---|---|---|
| Abandon | Desert, forsake, leave, quit, relinquish | He had to abandon his plans due to illness. |
| Abundant | Plentiful, ample, copious, profuse, bountiful | The region has abundant natural resources. |
| Adversity | Misfortune, hardship, calamity, affliction, tribulation | She showed courage in adversity. |
| Alleviate | Relieve, ease, mitigate, lessen, reduce | Medicine can alleviate pain. |
| Ambiguous | Vague, unclear, equivocal, obscure, cryptic | His statement was ambiguous. |
| Benevolent | Kind, generous, charitable, compassionate, philanthropic | He was a benevolent ruler. |
| Candid | Frank, honest, straightforward, sincere, open | She gave a candid opinion. |
| Conceal | Hide, disguise, cover, mask, obscure | He tried to conceal his identity. |
| Diligent | Hardworking, industrious, assiduous, conscientious, sedulous | She is a diligent student. |
| Eloquent | Articulate, fluent, expressive, persuasive, silver-tongued | He made an eloquent speech. |
| Frugal | Thrifty, economical, sparing, prudent, parsimonious | She leads a frugal lifestyle. |
| Gregarious | Sociable, outgoing, friendly, affable, convivial | He has a gregarious personality. |
| Hostile | Unfriendly, antagonistic, aggressive, belligerent, inimical | They faced a hostile environment. |
| Imminent | Impending, forthcoming, approaching, near, looming | Danger is imminent. |
| Meticulous | Careful, precise, thorough, scrupulous, fastidious | He is meticulous in his work. |
| Obsolete | Outdated, antiquated, archaic, old-fashioned, outmoded | The technology is obsolete. |
| Pragmatic | Practical, realistic, sensible, down-to-earth, utilitarian | She takes a pragmatic approach. |
| Redundant | Superfluous, unnecessary, excessive, surplus, repetitive | The information is redundant. |
| Tenacious | Persistent, determined, resolute, steadfast, dogged | He showed tenacious effort. |
| Volatile | Unstable, unpredictable, explosive, erratic, fickle | The situation is volatile. |
| Word | Antonym | Example Pair |
|---|---|---|
| Abundant | Scarce, meager, sparse | Food is abundant in summer but scarce in winter. |
| Ancient | Modern, contemporary, recent | Ancient civilizations vs. modern societies. |
| Artificial | Natural, genuine, authentic | Artificial flavors vs. natural ingredients. |
| Benevolent | Malevolent, cruel, wicked | A benevolent king vs. a malevolent tyrant. |
| Candid | Evasive, deceitful, dishonest | A candid response vs. an evasive reply. |
| Conceal | Reveal, expose, disclose | He tried to conceal the truth, but she revealed it. |
| Diligent | Lazy, indolent, negligent | A diligent worker vs. a lazy one. |
| Expand | Contract, shrink, reduce | Metals expand when heated and contract when cooled. |
| Frugal | Extravagant, wasteful, lavish | Frugal spending vs. extravagant lifestyle. |
| Genuine | Fake, counterfeit, spurious | Genuine products vs. fake imitations. |
| Hostile | Friendly, amicable, cordial | A hostile environment vs. a friendly atmosphere. |
| Optimist | Pessimist | An optimist sees opportunity; a pessimist sees obstacles. |
| Permanent | Temporary, transient, ephemeral | A permanent solution vs. a temporary fix. |
| Praise | Criticize, condemn, censure | Teachers praise good work and criticize poor effort. |
| Prudent | Reckless, imprudent, rash | A prudent decision vs. a reckless gamble. |
| Rigid | Flexible, pliable, adaptable | Rigid rules vs. flexible guidelines. |
| Transparent | Opaque, obscure, murky | Transparent glass vs. opaque walls. |
| Verbose | Concise, terse, brief | A verbose explanation vs. a concise summary. |
| Virtue | Vice, sin, wickedness | Honesty is a virtue; dishonesty is a vice. |
| Zenith | Nadir | The zenith (peak) of success vs. the nadir (lowest point). |
| Word 1 | Meaning | Word 2 | Meaning | Example |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Accept | To receive | Except | Excluding | I accept all gifts except money. |
| Advice | Suggestion (noun) | Advise | To suggest (verb) | I advise you to follow his advice. |
| Affect | Influence (verb) | Effect | Result (noun) | Pollution affects health; its effect is harmful. |
| Allusion | Indirect reference | Illusion | False perception | His allusion to Shakespeare created an illusion of depth. |
| Altar | Religious platform | Alter | Change | Don't alter the altar. |
| Brake | Stop device | Break | To shatter | Apply the brake or you'll break something. |
| Capital | City/money | Capitol | Government building | The Capitol building is in the nation's capital. |
| Cite | Quote | Site | Location | Cite your sources about the historical site. |
| Complement | Complete/enhance | Compliment | Praise | His tie complements his suit. She gave a compliment. |
| Council | Assembly | Counsel | Advice/lawyer | The council sought legal counsel. |
| Discreet | Careful, tactful | Discrete | Separate, distinct | Be discreet about these discrete issues. |
| Elicit | Draw out | Illicit | Illegal | The detective tried to elicit information about illicit activities. |
| Emigrate | Leave country | Immigrate | Enter country | They emigrated from India and immigrated to Canada. |
| Eminent | Distinguished | Imminent | About to happen | The eminent scientist warned of imminent danger. |
| Farther | Physical distance | Further | Additional/abstract | Walk farther down; we need further discussion. |
| Flaunt | Show off | Flout | Disobey | Don't flaunt wealth while you flout rules. |
| Loose | Not tight | Lose | Misplace | The loose button might lose. |
| Personal | Private, individual | Personnel | Staff, employees | HR handles personnel and their personal files. |
| Precede | Come before | Proceed | Continue, go forward | Introduction precedes the chapter; then proceed. |
| Principal | Main/head person | Principle | Rule, belief | The principal reason is a matter of principle. |
| Stationary | Not moving | Stationery | Writing materials | The stationary shop sells stationery. |
| Than | Comparison | Then | Time sequence | Better late than never; come first, then eat. |
| Their | Possessive | There | Place/existential | Their books are over there. |
| Weather | Climate | Whether | If/choice | Check whether the weather is good. |
| Who's | Who is | Whose | Possessive | Who's coming? Whose book is this? |
| Prefix | Meaning | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| Anti- | Against, opposite | Antibiotic, antisocial, antivirus, antithesis |
| Auto- | Self | Autobiography, automatic, autonomous, autopilot |
| Bi- | Two | Bicycle, bilingual, bilateral, biannual |
| Co- | Together, with | Cooperate, coexist, co-author, coordinate |
| Contra- | Against, opposite | Contradict, contrary, contrast, contraband |
| De- | Reverse, remove | Decode, defrost, devalue, decompose |
| Dis- | Not, opposite of | Disagree, disappear, dishonest, dislike |
| Ex- | Former, out of | Ex-president, export, exit, exclude |
| Il-, Im-, In-, Ir- | Not | Illegal, impossible, incomplete, irregular |
| Inter- | Between, among | International, interact, intercept, intervene |
| Mis- | Wrong, badly | Misunderstand, misbehave, mislead, misjudge |
| Multi- | Many | Multilingual, multimedia, multitask, multiple |
| Non- | Not | Nonsense, non-fiction, non-stop, non-violent |
| Over- | Too much, above | Overeat, overflow, overconfident, overlook |
| Post- | After | Postpone, postwar, postgraduate, postscript |
| Pre- | Before | Preview, prehistoric, predict, precaution |
| Re- | Again, back | Return, rewrite, review, reconsider |
| Semi- | Half, partly | Semicircle, semifinal, semi-automatic |
| Sub- | Under, below | Subway, submarine, subconscious, subordinate |
| Super- | Above, beyond | Superhuman, supernatural, supervise, superior |
| Trans- | Across, beyond | Transport, transform, transfer, translate |
| Un- | Not, opposite | Unhappy, unable, unusual, undo |
| Under- | Below, too little | Underestimate, underground, underweight |
| Suffix | Meaning | Word Type | Examples |
|---|---|---|---|
| -able, -ible | Capable of, can be | Adjective | Readable, flexible, possible, comfortable |
| -al | Relating to | Adjective | Natural, national, personal, historical |
| -ance, -ence | State, quality | Noun | Performance, independence, existence |
| -ant, -ent | One who | Noun | Servant, student, resident, assistant |
| -ation, -tion | Action, process | Noun | Education, information, celebration |
| -er, -or | One who does | Noun | Teacher, actor, writer, conductor |
| -ful | Full of | Adjective | Beautiful, careful, helpful, wonderful |
| -fy, -ify | Make, cause | Verb | Simplify, beautify, clarify, justify |
| -ic | Relating to | Adjective | Historic, scientific, dramatic, poetic |
| -ism | Belief, practice | Noun | Socialism, realism, criticism, idealism |
| -ist | One who practices | Noun | Artist, scientist, novelist, journalist |
| -ity, -ty | Quality, state | Noun | Reality, equality, honesty, safety |
| -ize, -ise | Make, cause to be | Verb | Realize, organize, modernize, civilize |
| -less | Without | Adjective | Hopeless, careless, endless, homeless |
| -ly | In the manner of | Adverb | Quickly, slowly, happily, carefully |
| -ment | Action, result | Noun | Development, government, achievement |
| -ness | State, quality | Noun | Happiness, kindness, darkness, sadness |
| -ous, -ious | Full of, having | Adjective | Famous, dangerous, serious, curious |
| -ship | State, condition | Noun | Friendship, leadership, scholarship |
| Rule | Explanation | Example |
|---|---|---|
| A vs. AN - Basic | A before consonant SOUND AN before vowel SOUND | A book, a university (yu- sound) An apple, an hour (silent h) |
| A/AN with Professions | Use A/AN before profession (singular) | He is a doctor. She is an engineer. |
| THE - Specific/Known | Use THE for specific, known things | I saw the movie you recommended. |
| THE - Unique Things | Use THE for one-of-a-kind things | The sun, the moon, the earth, the Taj Mahal |
| THE - Superlatives | Use THE before superlative adjectives | He is the best student. This is the largest city. |
| THE - Ordinals | Use THE before ordinal numbers | The first time, the second chapter |
| NO Article - Plural General | No article for general plural nouns | Books are important. Teachers work hard. |
| NO Article - Uncountable General | No article for general uncountable nouns | Water is essential. Honesty is the best policy. |
| THE with Rivers, Oceans | Use THE before rivers, oceans, seas | The Ganges, the Pacific Ocean, the Indian Ocean |
| NO Article with Mountains (single) | No THE before single mountain names | Mount Everest, Mount Fuji (NOT the Mount Everest) |
| THE with Mountain Ranges | Use THE before mountain ranges | The Himalayas, the Alps, the Rockies |
| NO Article with Lakes (single) | No THE before single lake names | Lake Victoria, Dal Lake |
| NO Article with Continents/Countries | Generally no THE with continents/countries | Asia, India, France EXCEPTIONS: the USA, the UK, the Netherlands |
| THE with Newspapers | Use THE before newspaper names | The Times of India, the Guardian |
| NO Article with Magazines | Generally no THE with magazines | Time magazine, Vogue |
| NO Article - Go to School/Church | No article when referring to purpose | Go to school (to study), go to church (to pray) BUT: Go to the school (the building itself) |
| THE - Musical Instruments | Use THE when talking about playing | She plays the piano. He plays the guitar. |
| NO Article - Sports/Games | No article before sports/games | Play cricket, play chess (NOT the cricket) |
| THE - Only/Same | Use THE with only, same | The only way, the same book |
| A/AN - Exclamations | Use A/AN in exclamations with singular nouns | What a beautiful day! Such an interesting story! |
| Conjunction | Usage | Example |
|---|---|---|
| For | Reason/cause (= because) | He stayed home, for he was ill. |
| And | Addition | She is smart and hardworking. |
| Nor | Negative addition (with negative) | He doesn't smoke, nor does he drink. |
| But | Contrast | He is rich but unhappy. |
| Or | Alternative/choice | Tea or coffee? |
| Yet | Contrast (= but, however) | He is old, yet active. |
| So | Result/consequence | It rained, so we stayed inside. |
| Type | Conjunctions | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Time | When, while, as, after, before, since, until, as soon as | When I arrived, he left. Wait until I return. |
| Cause/Reason | Because, since, as | I stayed home because I was sick. |
| Condition | If, unless, provided that, in case | If it rains, we'll cancel. Unless you hurry, you'll be late. |
| Contrast | Although, though, even though, whereas, while | Although he's rich, he's unhappy. |
| Purpose | So that, in order that, lest | Study hard so that you can pass. Be careful lest you should fall. |
| Result | So...that, such...that | He was so tired that he slept immediately. |
| Comparison | Than, as...as, as if, as though | He is taller than me. She acts as if she knows everything. |
| Place | Where, wherever | Go where you like. |
| Pair | Usage | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Either...or | One or the other (choice) | Either study hard or fail. |
| Neither...nor | Not one, not the other (negative) | He is neither rich nor famous. |
| Both...and | Two together (addition) | She is both intelligent and beautiful. |
| Not only...but also | Addition with emphasis | He is not only smart but also kind. |
| Whether...or | Alternative possibilities | I don't know whether to go or stay. |
| As...as | Equal comparison | She is as tall as her sister. |
| No sooner...than | Immediate sequence | No sooner did he arrive than it started raining. |
| Hardly/Scarcely...when | Immediate sequence | Hardly had I left when he called. |
| Tense | Active Voice | Passive Voice |
|---|---|---|
| Simple Present | He writes a letter. | A letter is written by him. |
| Present Continuous | He is writing a letter. | A letter is being written by him. |
| Present Perfect | He has written a letter. | A letter has been written by him. |
| Simple Past | He wrote a letter. | A letter was written by him. |
| Past Continuous | He was writing a letter. | A letter was being written by him. |
| Past Perfect | He had written a letter. | A letter had been written by him. |
| Simple Future | He will write a letter. | A letter will be written by him. |
| Future Perfect | He will have written a letter. | A letter will have been written by him. |
| Modal | Active Voice | Passive Voice |
|---|---|---|
| Can | He can do it. | It can be done by him. |
| Could | He could solve the problem. | The problem could be solved by him. |
| May | She may complete the work. | The work may be completed by her. |
| Might | They might accept the offer. | The offer might be accepted by them. |
| Must | We must finish the task. | The task must be finished by us. |
| Should | You should read this book. | This book should be read by you. |
| Would | He would help us. | We would be helped by him. |
| Ought to | You ought to respect elders. | Elders ought to be respected by you. |
| Case | Active Voice | Passive Voice |
|---|---|---|
| Interrogative | Did he write the letter? | Was the letter written by him? |
| Negative | He did not write the letter. | The letter was not written by him. |
| Imperative | Close the door. | Let the door be closed. |
| Let (suggestion) | Let us help them. | Let them be helped by us. |
| Two Objects | He gave me a book. | I was given a book by him. OR: A book was given to me by him. |
| Infinitive after Modal | You must do it. | It must be done by you. |
| Going to | He is going to write a letter. | A letter is going to be written by him. |
| Have to | We have to complete the work. | The work has to be completed by us. |
| Type | Active | Passive |
|---|---|---|
| Make + Object + Infinitive | They made him work hard. | He was made to work hard. |
| Let + Object + Infinitive | They let us go. | We were let go / were allowed to go. |
| See/Hear/Watch + Object + Infinitive | I saw him enter the room. | He was seen to enter the room by me. |
| It is said that... | People say that he is honest. | It is said that he is honest. He is said to be honest. |
| It is believed that... | People believe that she left. | It is believed that she left. She is believed to have left. |
| Question Word + Infinitive | He knows how to do it. | How to do it is known by him. |
| Direct Speech | Indirect Speech | Rule |
|---|---|---|
| He said, "I am happy." | He said (that) he was happy. | Present → Past |
| She said, "I work here." | She said (that) she worked there. | Simple Present → Simple Past |
| He said, "I am working." | He said (that) he was working. | Present Continuous → Past Continuous |
| She said, "I worked hard." | She said (that) she had worked hard. | Simple Past → Past Perfect |
| He said, "I have finished." | He said (that) he had finished. | Present Perfect → Past Perfect |
| She said, "I had left early." | She said (that) she had left early. | Past Perfect → Past Perfect (no change) |
| He said, "I will go." | He said (that) he would go. | Will → Would |
| She said, "I can swim." | She said (that) she could swim. | Can → Could |
| He said, "I may come." | He said (that) he might come. | May → Might |
| Direct Speech | Indirect Speech |
|---|---|
| I | He/She (depending on speaker) |
| We | They |
| You | I/We/He/She/They (depending on listener) |
| My, our, your | His/her/their (as appropriate) |
| This, these | That, those |
| Direct Speech | Indirect Speech |
|---|---|
| now | then |
| today | that day |
| tonight | that night |
| tomorrow | the next day / the following day |
| yesterday | the previous day / the day before |
| last week/month/year | the previous week/month/year |
| next week/month/year | the following week/month/year |
| ago | before |
| here | there |
| this | that |
| these | those |
| come | go |
| Type | Direct Speech | Indirect Speech |
|---|---|---|
| Yes/No Question | He said, "Do you work here?" | He asked if/whether I worked there. |
| Wh- Question | She said, "Where do you live?" | She asked where I lived. |
| Question with Modal | He said, "Can you help me?" | He asked if/whether I could help him. |
| Type | Direct Speech | Indirect Speech |
|---|---|---|
| Positive Command | He said, "Close the door." | He told/ordered me to close the door. |
| Negative Command | She said, "Don't shout." | She told/ordered me not to shout. |
| Request (Please) | He said, "Please help me." | He requested me to help him. |
| Advice (Should) | She said, "You should study." | She advised me to study. |
| Type | Direct Speech | Indirect Speech |
|---|---|---|
| Exclamation (What/How) | He said, "What a beautiful day!" | He exclaimed that it was a very beautiful day. |
| Joy | She said, "Hurrah! I won!" | She exclaimed with joy that she had won. |
| Sorrow | He said, "Alas! I failed." | He exclaimed with sorrow that he had failed. |
| Wish | She said, "May you succeed!" | She wished that I might succeed. |
| Greeting | He said, "Good morning!" | He wished me good morning. |
| Function | Example | Acts as |
|---|---|---|
| Subject | What he said is true. | Noun (subject of "is") |
| Object | I know that he is honest. | Noun (object of "know") |
| Complement | The problem is that we have no time. | Noun (after "is") |
| Apposition | The fact that he lied shocked me. | Explains "fact" |
| Relative Pronoun | Refers to | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Who | Person (subject) | The man who called you is here. |
| Whom | Person (object) | The man whom you met is my friend. |
| Whose | Possession | The girl whose bag was stolen cried. |
| Which | Thing/animal | The book which I bought is interesting. |
| That | Person/thing | The car that he drives is expensive. |
| Where | Place | The house where I lived is old. |
| When | Time | The day when we met was special. |
| Type | Subordinators | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Time | When, while, as, before, after, since, until, as soon as | I left when he arrived. |
| Place | Where, wherever | Stay where you are. |
| Manner | As, as if, as though | He acts as if he knows everything. |
| Reason | Because, since, as | I stayed home because I was sick. |
| Purpose | So that, in order that, lest | Study hard so that you can pass. |
| Result | So...that, such...that | He was so tired that he slept immediately. |
| Condition | If, unless, provided that, in case | If it rains, we'll cancel. |
| Concession | Although, though, even though, while, whereas | Although he's rich, he's unhappy. |
| Comparison | Than, as...as | He runs faster than I do. |
| Type | Structure | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Simple Sentence | 1 Independent Clause | I went to school. |
| Compound Sentence | 2+ Independent Clauses joined by coordinating conjunction | I went to school, and she went to work. |
| Complex Sentence | 1 Independent + 1+ Dependent Clause | When I arrived, he left. |
| Compound-Complex | 2+ Independent + 1+ Dependent Clause | When I arrived, he left, but she stayed. |
| Incorrect | Correct | Rule |
|---|---|---|
| Each of the students have a book. | Each of the students has a book. | Each/every = singular |
| The number of accidents are increasing. | The number of accidents is increasing. | "The number" = singular |
| A number of students has failed. | A number of students have failed. | "A number" = plural |
| Either of them are guilty. | Either of them is guilty. | Either/neither = singular |
| Neither he nor I is responsible. | Neither he nor I am responsible. | Verb agrees with nearest subject |
| Incorrect | Correct | Rule |
|---|---|---|
| He came and sees me. | He came and saw me. | Maintain past tense |
| When I reach home, it was raining. | When I reached home, it was raining. | Past event needs past tense |
| He said that he is tired. | He said that he was tired. | Past reporting verb → past in subordinate |
| If I would have money, I would buy it. | If I had money, I would buy it. | Second conditional uses simple past |
| By next month, I will complete the project. | By next month, I will have completed the project. | "By" + future time = future perfect |
| Incorrect | Correct | Rule |
|---|---|---|
| He accused me for lying. | He accused me of lying. | Accuse + OF |
| She is good in cricket. | She is good at cricket. | Good + AT |
| We agreed to the proposal. | We agreed on the proposal. | Agree ON (thing) |
| He congratulated me for my success. | He congratulated me on my success. | Congratulate + ON |
| She is married with a doctor. | She is married to a doctor. | Married + TO |
| Incorrect | Correct | Rule |
|---|---|---|
| He is an university student. | He is a university student. | "U" has "yu" sound (consonant) |
| She is a honest girl. | She is an honest girl. | Silent "h" = vowel sound |
| The Mount Everest is highest peak. | Mount Everest is the highest peak. | No "the" before single mountain |
| He plays the cricket. | He plays cricket. | No article before sports |
| She is best student. | She is the best student. | Superlative needs "the" |
| Incorrect | Correct | Rule |
|---|---|---|
| Everyone must do their duty. | Everyone must do his/her duty. | Everyone = singular (though "their" is now accepted in informal usage) |
| Each student must bring their book. | Each student must bring his/her book. | Each = singular |
| Whom do you think is guilty? | Who do you think is guilty? | "Who" is subject of "is" |
| Between you and I, this is wrong. | Between you and me, this is wrong. | After preposition use object form |
| He gave it to I. | He gave it to me. | Object of preposition needs "me" |
| Incorrect | Correct | Rule |
|---|---|---|
| He writes good. | He writes well. | Adverb modifies verb |
| She drives careful. | She drives carefully. | Adverb needed |
| He is feeling badly. | He is feeling bad. | Adjective after "feel" |
| The cake smells sweetly. | The cake smells sweet. | Adjective after sense verbs |
| She is a very unique person. | She is a unique person. | "Unique" is absolute (no degree) |
| Incorrect | Correct | Rule |
|---|---|---|
| I don't have no money. | I don't have any money. / I have no money. | Avoid double negative |
| He scarcely never comes. | He scarcely ever comes. | Scarcely is negative |
| She returned back home. | She returned home. | "Back" is redundant with "returned" |
| Please repeat again. | Please repeat. | "Again" is redundant |
| He made a free gift. | He made a gift. | Gifts are free by definition |
| Incorrect | Correct | Rule |
|---|---|---|
| He is more taller than me. | He is taller than me. | Don't use "more" with "-er" |
| She is the most prettiest girl. | She is the prettiest girl. | Don't use "most" with "-est" |
| This is more better. | This is better. | "Better" is already comparative |
| He is the more intelligent of the three. | He is the most intelligent of the three. | Three or more = superlative |
| She is senior than me. | She is senior to me. | Senior/junior/superior/inferior + TO |
| Incorrect | Correct | Rule |
|---|---|---|
| He likes swimming, reading, and to run. | He likes swimming, reading, and running. | Maintain parallel form |
| She is intelligent, kind, and works hard. | She is intelligent, kind, and hardworking. | All adjectives |
| To succeed requires patience and being persistent. | To succeed requires patience and persistence. | Both nouns |
| Not only he is smart but also kind. | He is not only smart but also kind. | Proper placement |
| Incorrect | Correct | Rule |
|---|---|---|
| If I will see him, I will tell him. | If I see him, I will tell him. | First conditional: present + will |
| If I would be rich, I would travel. | If I were rich, I would travel. | Second conditional: past + would |
| If he would have studied, he would have passed. | If he had studied, he would have passed. | Third conditional: past perfect + would have |
| I wish I am rich. | I wish I were rich. | Wish about present = past/were |
| Type | Description | Skills Tested |
|---|---|---|
| Grammar-Based | Missing words are grammatical (articles, prepositions, conjunctions, auxiliary verbs) | Grammar rules, sentence structure |
| Vocabulary-Based | Missing words are content words (nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs) | Vocabulary, contextual meaning |
| Mixed | Combination of grammar and vocabulary blanks | Comprehensive language skills |
| Step | Action | Why Important |
|---|---|---|
| 1. Read the Title | If given, read the title carefully | Gives overall context and topic |
| 2. Skim the Passage | Read entire passage quickly without focusing on blanks | Understand general meaning, tone, and context |
| 3. Read Around Blanks | Read 1-2 sentences before and after each blank | Understand immediate context |
| 4. Identify Word Type | Determine what part of speech is needed (noun, verb, adjective, etc.) | Narrows down options |
| 5. Look for Clues | Find grammatical and contextual clues in surrounding words | Helps select correct option |
| 6. Eliminate Wrong Options | Cross out clearly incorrect options first | Increases probability of correct answer |
| 7. Fill Easy Blanks First | Complete blanks you're confident about | Builds confidence, provides more context for difficult ones |
| 8. Re-read with Answers | Read entire passage with your answers | Check for coherence and flow |
| 9. Verify Grammar | Ensure each answer is grammatically correct | Catch subject-verb disagreement, tense errors, etc. |
| 10. Check Logic | Ensure meaning makes sense | Content should be logical and coherent |
| Clue Type | What to Notice | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Grammatical Clues | Articles (a/an/the), prepositions, verb forms, singular/plural | If previous word is "a", next word must start with consonant sound |
| Collocation | Words that commonly go together | "Make a decision" (not "do a decision") |
| Transition Words | However, moreover, therefore, although, etc. | Indicates contrast, addition, result, etc. |
| Pronoun Reference | He/she/it/they refer to nouns mentioned earlier | If "he" is used, subject must be male singular |
| Time Markers | Yesterday, tomorrow, now, then, before, after | Determines tense of verb |
| Logical Connectors | Because, since, as, so, but, yet | Shows relationship between ideas |
| Synonyms/Antonyms | Words in passage may be synonyms or antonyms of answer | If passage mentions "difficult," blank might be "challenging" |
| Pattern | Rule | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Article + Adjective + Noun | Follow a/an rules based on sound of adjective | An honest man, a useful book |
| Preposition after Verb | Many verbs have fixed prepositions | Depend on, belong to, look for |
| Neither...nor / Either...or | Verb agrees with nearest subject | Neither he nor I am ready. |
| Not only...but also | Shows addition with emphasis | He is not only smart but also kind. |
| Although/Though/Even though | Shows contrast (followed by subject + verb) | Although it was raining, we went out. |
| In spite of/Despite | Shows contrast (followed by noun/gerund) | Despite the rain, we went out. |
| So...that | Shows result | He was so tired that he slept immediately. |
| Strategy | How to Apply | Benefit |
|---|---|---|
| Skim First | Read passage quickly (1-2 minutes) for main idea | Get overall understanding before questions |
| Read Questions First | Scan questions before reading passage | Know what to look for while reading |
| Identify Passage Type | Narrative, expository, argumentative, descriptive | Adjust reading strategy accordingly |
| Mark Key Information | Underline/circle dates, names, key terms | Easy to locate when answering questions |
| Note Paragraph Topics | Write brief note about each paragraph's main idea | Helps with "passage organization" questions |
| Look for Topic Sentences | Usually first or last sentence of paragraph | Quickly identify main point |
| Identify Tone/Attitude | Notice author's choice of words, descriptions | Essential for tone/attitude questions |
| Find Support in Text | Every answer should be supported by passage | Avoid assumptions or outside knowledge |
| Eliminate Wrong Options | Cross out clearly wrong answers first | Increases accuracy |
| Watch for Absolutes | Options with "always, never, all, none" are often wrong | Passages rarely deal in absolutes |
| Question Type | Strategy |
|---|---|
| Main Idea | What is the passage mainly about? Look at first paragraph, last paragraph, and topic sentences. Avoid options that are too specific or too broad. |
| Detail/Fact | Specific information stated in passage. Locate relevant portion and match with options. Watch for paraphrasing. |
| Inference | What is implied but not directly stated? Must be logically supported by passage. Don't go too far from text. |
| Vocabulary in Context | Meaning of word as used in passage. Read sentence containing word and surrounding sentences. Don't rely on memorized definitions only. |
| Author's Purpose | Why did author write this? To inform, persuade, entertain, criticize, describe, etc. Consider tone and content. |
| Tone/Attitude | Author's attitude toward subject. Look at adjectives, descriptive language, and overall writing style. (Positive, negative, neutral, critical, humorous, etc.) |
| Organization/Structure | How is passage organized? Chronological, cause-effect, comparison-contrast, problem-solution, etc. |
| Reference | "It" or "they" refers to what? Look at preceding sentences for antecedent. |
| Exception/Negative | All are true EXCEPT... Verify each option against passage. Four will be mentioned; one will not. |
| Section | What to Include |
|---|---|
| 1. Introduction (Context) | • Author name, work title (if known/identifiable) • Genre/form (sonnet, dramatic monologue, narrative prose, etc.) • Subject matter/theme (in 1-2 sentences) • Tone/mood (serious, ironic, melancholic, celebratory, etc.) |
| 2. Content/Theme Analysis | • What is the passage about? • Central theme(s) or message • Situation/scenario presented • Poet's/writer's perspective or argument • Development of thought/narrative progression |
| 3. Form & Structure | For Poetry: • Verse form (sonnet, free verse, ballad stanza, couplets, quatrains, etc.) • Rhyme scheme (ABAB, AABB, etc.) or absence of rhyme • Meter (iambic pentameter, trochaic tetrameter, etc.) • Stanza structure, line length patterns • Divisions/shifts (volta in sonnet, stanza breaks) For Prose: • Sentence structure (simple, complex, compound; short/long) • Paragraph organization • Narrative technique (first/third person, dialogue, description) |
| 4. Language & Diction | • Level of language (formal, colloquial, archaic, simple, ornate) • Word choice significance (concrete/abstract, sensory, emotive) • Denotation vs. connotation • Distinctive vocabulary (technical terms, dialect, register) |
| 5. Literary Devices/Figures of Speech | Identify and analyze effect: • Imagery (visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory, gustatory, kinesthetic) • Metaphor, simile, personification • Symbolism, allegory • Alliteration, assonance, consonance • Repetition, parallelism, antithesis • Irony (verbal, situational, dramatic) • Hyperbole, understatement • Oxymoron, paradox • Allusion (mythological, biblical, historical, literary) |
| 6. Tone & Mood | • Author's attitude toward subject (tone) • Emotional atmosphere created (mood) • How tone/mood achieved (word choice, rhythm, imagery) • Shifts in tone/mood |
| 7. Sound Devices (Poetry) | • Rhyme (end rhyme, internal rhyme, eye rhyme) • Rhythm and meter effects • Caesura and enjambment • Onomatopoeia • Euphony (pleasant sounds) vs. cacophony (harsh sounds) |
| 8. Evaluation/Conclusion | • Effectiveness of the passage • How form serves content • Success of techniques used • Overall impression and significance • Avoid: "I liked it" or purely subjective statements - ground in textual evidence |
| Step | Action |
|---|---|
| Step 1: Read Multiple Times | • First reading: Overall impression, basic meaning • Second reading: Note unfamiliar words, literary devices • Third reading: Analyze structure, deeper meanings |
| Step 2: Identify Form | • Count lines, identify stanzas • Check rhyme scheme (mark end words: A, B, A, B, etc.) • Scan meter (mark stressed/unstressed syllables) • Name the form (sonnet, ode, ballad, free verse, etc.) |
| Step 3: Paraphrase | • Restate in simple prose what poem says • Clarify difficult syntax, archaic language • Identify literal meaning before symbolic |
| Step 4: Analyze Theme | • What is the poem ABOUT? (subject) • What does it SAY about that subject? (theme) • How does theme develop through poem? |
| Step 5: Examine Language | • Mark all figures of speech • Note patterns of imagery • Identify key words and their connotations • Observe diction level and appropriateness |
| Step 6: Consider Sound | • Read aloud - note effects of sound • Analyze rhyme, rhythm, alliteration contributions • Notice musicality or harshness - why? |
| Step 7: Evaluate Unity | • How do form, content, language work together? • Do all elements serve the theme? • Are there tensions or contradictions? (may be intentional) |
| Step 8: Write Appreciation | • Organize into paragraphs as per structure above • Support every claim with textual evidence (quote + analyze) • Maintain formal, analytical tone • Connect observations to overall effect |
| Aspect | Analysis |
|---|---|
| Form | Shakespearean sonnet (14 lines, ABAB CDCD EFEF GG rhyme scheme, iambic pentameter) |
| Theme | Eternal nature of poetry vs. transient beauty; beloved's beauty immortalized in verse |
| Opening Device | Rhetorical question engages reader; sets up extended comparison (conceit) |
| Imagery | Summer imagery (warmth, sunshine) contrasted with beloved's constancy; seasonal cycle vs. eternal verse |
| Key Shift (Volta) | Line 9: "But thy eternal summer shall not fade" - turn from problem to solution |
| Paradox | Death cannot claim beloved BECAUSE poem gives life - art defeats mortality |
| Concluding Couplet | Emphatic assertion of poetry's immortalizing power - confident tone |
| Step | Action |
|---|---|
| Step 1: Identify Passage Type | • Narrative (story-telling) • Descriptive (scene, character, object) • Expository (explanation, information) • Argumentative (persuasion, opinion) • Dialogue-heavy (conversation, dramatic) |
| Step 2: Summarize Content | • What happens/is described/is argued? • Who are the characters/speakers? • What is the setting (time, place)? • What is the situation/context? |
| Step 3: Analyze Narrative Technique | • Point of view (first person, third person limited/omniscient) • Narrative voice (reliable/unreliable, objective/subjective) • Pace (fast action vs. slow description) • Chronology (linear, flashback, flash-forward) |
| Step 4: Examine Style | • Sentence structure (simple, complex, compound; long/short) • Sentence variety and rhythm • Paragraph structure (topic sentences, transitions) • Punctuation effects (dashes, ellipses, semicolons) |
| Step 5: Study Diction | • Formal vs. informal • Abstract vs. concrete • Latinate vs. Anglo-Saxon • Technical/specialized vs. everyday • Effect of word choices on tone |
| Step 6: Identify Devices | • Imagery and sensory details • Figurative language (metaphor, simile, personification) • Symbolism • Irony, paradox • Repetition, parallelism • Allusions |
| Step 7: Determine Tone | • Author's attitude (serious, ironic, satiric, humorous, nostalgic, etc.) • How tone created (word choice, syntax, details selected) • Tone shifts within passage |
| Step 8: Evaluate Effectiveness | • How well does style suit content? • Are techniques effective for purpose? • Overall artistic merit and impact |
| Device | Definition | Effect/Purpose |
|---|---|---|
| Imagery | Descriptive language appealing to senses | Creates vivid picture; evokes sensory experience; makes abstract concrete |
| Metaphor | Implicit comparison (A = B) | Reveals similarity; creates new perspective; compresses meaning |
| Simile | Explicit comparison (A like/as B) | Clarifies through comparison; creates vivid picture; accessible |
| Personification | Human qualities to non-human | Makes abstract relatable; creates emotional connection; animates inanimate |
| Symbolism | Object/action represents abstract idea | Adds depth; suggests meanings beyond literal; universalizes |
| Alliteration | Repetition of initial consonant sounds | Creates rhythm; emphasizes words; unifies phrases; musical effect |
| Assonance | Repetition of vowel sounds | Creates internal rhyme; musical; slows pace; emphasizes mood |
| Allusion | Reference to literature, history, myth | Enriches meaning; connects to larger tradition; assumes educated reader |
| Irony | Contrast between expectation and reality | Creates complexity; satirizes; provokes thought; adds layers |
| Paradox | Apparent contradiction revealing truth | Stimulates thought; captures complexity; challenges assumptions |
| Hyperbole | Exaggeration for effect | Emphasizes; creates humor; conveys intensity of feeling |
| Understatement | Deliberate minimization | Creates irony; emphasizes through restraint; sophisticated humor |
| Oxymoron | Two contradictory terms together | Captures paradox; creates surprise; reveals complexity |
| Enjambment | Line runs over to next without pause | Creates flow; emphasizes words; mimics thought process |
| Caesura | Pause within line (marked by punctuation) | Creates emphasis; disrupts rhythm; dramatic effect |
| Mistake | Why Wrong | What To Do Instead |
|---|---|---|
| Paraphrasing without analyzing | Just restating content ≠ appreciation | Explain HOW and WHY techniques create effects |
| Listing devices without function | "There is a metaphor" - so what? | Analyze what metaphor DOES, what effect it creates |
| Personal opinion only | "I liked it" is not critical analysis | Ground evaluation in textual evidence and technique |
| Ignoring form | Form shapes meaning | Always discuss how form serves/enhances content |
| Over-interpretation | Finding meanings author didn't intend | Support claims with evidence from text |
| Plot summary instead of analysis | Telling what happens ≠ analyzing how | Focus on technique, style, literary merit |
| Ignoring tone | Missing irony or satire changes meaning | Always identify tone - it affects interpretation |
| No textual evidence | Claims without proof unconvincing | Quote relevant words/lines; then analyze |
| Paragraph | Content |
|---|---|
| Introduction (50-75 words) | • Identify author, work, genre (if known) • State subject/theme in 1-2 sentences • Mention tone/mood • Brief statement of overall effect/significance |
| Body Paragraph 1: Content & Theme (100-125 words) | • What passage is about • Central theme or message • How thought/narrative develops • Key ideas or situations presented |
| Body Paragraph 2: Form & Structure (100-125 words) | • Poetic form OR prose structure • Organization (stanzas, paragraphs, divisions) • Rhyme scheme and meter (poetry) OR sentence structure (prose) • How form serves content |
| Body Paragraph 3: Language & Style (125-150 words) | • Diction (level, type, effects) • Key imagery patterns • Major figures of speech with examples • How language creates tone/mood • Sound devices (poetry) |
| Body Paragraph 4: Literary Devices (100-125 words) | • Identify 3-4 main devices • Quote examples • Analyze effect of each • Connect to overall theme/purpose |
| Conclusion (50-75 words) | • Overall effectiveness • Unity of form and content • Significance of passage • Final evaluative statement grounded in analysis |
| Total Word Count | 500-650 words (typical for exam appreciation) |
| Question Type | What to Look For |
|---|---|
| Identify the rhyme scheme | Mark end words with letters; write pattern (ABAB, AABB, etc.) |
| What is the meter? | Scan first line; count syllables; mark stress; identify foot type + line length |
| Identify the figure of speech | Look for comparison (simile/metaphor), exaggeration (hyperbole), opposite (irony), etc. |
| What is the tone? | Look at diction, punctuation, imagery; is it serious, ironic, melancholic, celebratory, etc.? |
| What is the theme? | What abstract idea is explored? (love, death, nature, time, identity, etc.) |
| Identify the poetic form | Count lines, check rhyme scheme: 14 lines + specific rhyme = sonnet; couplets = heroic couplets, etc. |
| What device is used in line X? | Read line carefully; check if comparison, sound repetition, exaggeration, etc. |
| What is the effect of device X? | Does it emphasize, create mood, add musicality, create irony, clarify meaning, etc.? |