| Feature | Details |
|---|---|
| Dominant Influence | Christian theology: All criticism subordinated to religious concerns Bible as supreme text: Model for all interpretation Moral/didactic purpose: Literature should teach Christian virtues Distrust of secular literature: Unless it served religious ends |
| Classical Heritage | Preserved through Church: Monasteries copied manuscripts Selective appropriation: Classical texts interpreted allegorically to fit Christian doctrine Virgil, Ovid allegorized: Pagan myths given Christian meanings |
| Key Concepts | Allegory: Dominant interpretive mode Fourfold interpretation: Multiple levels of meaning Defense of poetry: Justified through moral/theological utility Rhetoric: One of seven liberal arts (Trivium: grammar, rhetoric, logic) |
| Major Genres | Religious: Saints' lives, morality plays, mystery plays Romance: Chivalric tales (often allegorized) Dream vision: Allegorical framework Exemplum: Moral tales illustrating virtues/vices |
| Level | Latin Term | Explanation | Example (Jerusalem) |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1. Literal / Historical | Littera | Surface meaning, actual events/story | Literal city in Palestine |
| 2. Allegorical / Typological | Allegoria | Symbolic/doctrinal meaning, prefiguration of Christ/Church | Church of Christ on earth |
| 3. Moral / Tropological | Tropologia | Moral lesson, how to live virtuously | The Christian soul |
| 4. Anagogical / Eschatological | Anagogia | Mystical/heavenly meaning, ultimate spiritual truth, afterlife | Heavenly city, salvation |
| Work/Concept | Details |
|---|---|
| Life | Bishop of Hippo (North Africa) Early life: Teacher of rhetoric, converted to Christianity (386 CE) Father of Christian philosophy |
| De Doctrina Christiana (On Christian Doctrine) | 397-426 CE, four books Book IV: Most relevant to criticism - on rhetoric and preaching Use of pagan learning: Defended studying classical rhetoric/philosophy for Christian purposes "Spoiling the Egyptians": Christians can take useful things from pagan culture (like Israelites took Egyptian gold) Three styles of discourse: Plain (teach), Middle (delight), Grand (persuade) Eloquence should serve truth: Style subordinate to content |
| Signs vs. Things | Things: Objects themselves Signs: Point to things beyond themselves Words are signs: Language mediates reality Scriptural interpretation: Understanding signs correctly is key |
| Confessions | Autobiography (397-400 CE) Book III: Discusses early love of Virgil's Aeneid Ambivalence: Acknowledges beauty of pagan literature but warns of moral dangers "I wept for Dido": Emotional power of fiction can distract from God |
| Work/Concept | Details |
|---|---|
| Life | Born: Florence, Italy Major work: Divine Comedy (Inferno, Purgatorio, Paradiso) Political exile: From Florence (1302), never returned |
| Divine Comedy | Allegorical epic poem Three realms: Hell, Purgatory, Heaven Guide: Virgil (reason) in Hell/Purgatory, Beatrice (divine love) in Heaven Terza rima: Rhyme scheme (ABA BCB CDC...) Fourfold meaning: Can be read on all four medieval levels |
| Letter to Can Grande della Scala | Explains Divine Comedy's meaning Fourfold interpretation: Explicitly applies quadriga to his work Example (Exodus): - Literal: Israelites' escape from Egypt - Allegorical: Redemption through Christ - Moral: Soul's conversion from sin to grace - Anagogical: Soul's passage from earthly corruption to heavenly glory Polysemous (multiple meanings): Poetry should have layers |
| De Vulgari Eloquentia (On the Eloquence of the Vernacular) | Written 1303-05 (unfinished) Defense of Italian: Vernacular can be used for serious literature (NOT just Latin) Three styles: Tragic (elevated), Comic (middle), Elegiac (low) Subject matter determines style Pioneering: First critical work on vernacular language |
| Il Convivio (The Banquet) | 1304-07 (unfinished) Philosophical treatise with commentary on his own canzoni Allegory explained: Discusses "allegory of poets" vs. "allegory of theologians" Allegory of poets: Fiction with truth hidden beneath Allegory of theologians: Literal level is also true (as in Scripture) |
| Work/Concept | Details |
|---|---|
| Life | Born: Tuscany/Florence area Famous for: The Decameron (1353) - 100 tales Friend/student of: Petrarch Later life: Turned to scholarship, defended poetry |
| Genealogia Deorum Gentilium (On the Genealogy of the Gods of the Gentiles) | Books XIV-XV: Defense of poetry (most important for criticism) Written: 1360s Encyclopedia of classical mythology with critical defense appended Purpose: Justify poetry against theological/moral attacks |
| Defense of Poetry | Poetry as theology: Poets were first theologians (prisca theologia) Ancient poets knew divine truths: Expressed through allegory/myth Veil/covering: Truth hidden under "fiction" to make it more valued Refutes charges: - Poetry not lies: Fiction contains truth allegorically - Not immoral: Teaches virtue through examples - Not useless: Provides wisdom and pleasure Four kinds of poets: According to subject matter |
| Allegory | Essential to poetry: Hides profound truths Requires learned readers: Must work to uncover meaning Makes wisdom more valuable: What comes easily is less prized "Sweet fruit within rough rind" |
| Poet as Theologian | Noble vocation: Poets reveal divine mysteries Inspiration: From God (echoes Plato but Christianized) Distinct from philosophy: Uses fiction/imagination, not pure reason |
| Work/Concept | Details |
|---|---|
| Critical Significance | Not a systematic critic but comments on poetry in his works The Canterbury Tales: Frame narrative, variety of styles/voices Troilus and Criseyde: Psychological realism, narrator's role |
| Retraction | End of Canterbury Tales: Chaucer "retracts" his secular works Asks forgiveness for writing about worldly vanities Reflects medieval tension: Between artistic pleasure and religious duty Ironic?: Scholars debate sincerity |
| Views on Poetry | "Sentence and solaas": Meaning and pleasure (echoes Horace's dulce et utile) Narrator persona: Sophisticated use of unreliable/naïve narrators Self-deprecation: Often mocks himself as poet |
| Figure | Contribution |
|---|---|
| St. Jerome (347-420) | Translated Bible into Latin (Vulgate) Wrestled with pagan learning: Famous dream where accused of being "Ciceronian, not Christian" Justified studying classics for Christian purposes |
| Boethius (c. 480-524) | The Consolation of Philosophy: Dialogue between Boethius and Lady Philosophy Blended classical philosophy with Christianity Hugely influential throughout Middle Ages Translated/commented on Aristotle |
| St. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274) | Summa Theologica: Systematized Christian theology Aristotelian method: Reconciled Aristotle with Christianity Four causes: Adapted Aristotle to explain creation Indirect influence on literary theory through philosophy |
| John of Salisbury (c. 1120-1180) | Metalogicon: Defense of liberal arts, especially logic and rhetoric Defended classical learning against detractors |
| Concept | Explanation |
|---|---|
| Allegory | Dominant mode: Extended metaphor, surface story + hidden meaning Types: Personification allegory (virtues/vices as characters), historical/biblical typology Examples: Roman de la Rose, Piers Plowman, Everyman (morality play) |
| Exemplum | Moral tale: Short narrative illustrating virtue or vice Used in sermons: To teach congregation Chaucer's Pardoner: Uses exempla (ironically) |
| Courtly Love | Idealized love: Noble, often unattainable lady worshipped by knight Code of behavior: Refined manners, service, secrecy Influenced by: Troubadour poetry, Arthurian romance Spiritual dimension: Love ennobles lover |
| Dream Vision | Literary device: Narrator falls asleep, has allegorical dream Examples: Roman de la Rose, Pearl, Piers Plowman, Chaucer's Book of the Duchess Justifies fantastic content: "It was just a dream" |
| Trivium & Quadrivium | Seven Liberal Arts: Medieval university curriculum Trivium (language arts): Grammar, Rhetoric, Logic Quadrivium (mathematical arts): Arithmetic, Geometry, Music, Astronomy Rhetoric: Art of persuasion, essential for preaching and poetry |
| Aspect | Classical | Medieval |
|---|---|---|
| Authority | Reason, observation of nature | Scripture, Church Fathers, tradition |
| Purpose of Literature | Pleasure, catharsis, moral improvement (Horace) | Religious instruction, salvation |
| Interpretation | Mostly literal (some allegory) | Fourfold, heavy allegory |
| Poet's Status | Craftsman (Aristotle), inspired (Plato/Longinus) | Theologian-poet, servant of God |
| Subject Matter | Human action, universal truths | Subordinated to Christian doctrine |
| Key Texts | Homer, Greek tragedies, Virgil | Bible, saints' lives, allegories |
| Medieval | Transitional Figures | Renaissance |
|---|---|---|
| Theology-centered | Dante, Boccaccio, Petrarch | Human-centered (Humanism) |
| Latin dominant | Vernacular defended (Dante) | Vernaculars flourish |
| Allegorical interpretation | Multiple meanings accepted | More literal interpretation |
| Christian framework | Classical texts revalued | Classical revival (back to sources) |